::: SixHat Technologies ITIL :::

 

ITIL is the only consistent and comprehensive documentation of best practice for IT Service Management. Used by many hundreds of organizations around the world, a whole ITIL philosophy has grown up around the guidance contained within the ITIL books and the supporting professional qualification scheme.The IT Infrastructure Library, ITIL (ฎ), is a series of documents that are used to aid the implementation of a framework for IT Service Management (ITSM). This framework defines how Service Management is applied within specific organisations. Being a framework, it is completely customisable for application within any type of business or organisation that has a reliance on IT infrastructure.

SixHat Technologies provides professional ITIL/ITSM Evaluation, Implementation and Consulting services. By combining the resources of  SixHat Technologies, the 6HT LAB and SNMPWORLD.com we are able to provide a well-proven system to evaluate, implement and document an ITIL compliance system that will meet any customer’s needs. The 6HT ITIL SYSTEM is designed to cover all the key areas of evaluating and implementing a well designed ITIL system. The benefits of implementing this system are; a well documented evaluation and implementation plan, increase control and performance over the entire IT organization, meet and exceed current IT Service requirements, maximize IT resources and minimize overall cost of IT operations.

 

The 6HT ITIL~SYSTEM


1. Evaluate current internal ITIL requirements:

 - Requirements for Service Support

 - Requirements for Service Delivery

2. Evaluate and recommend ITIL Disciplines

- Configuration Management

- Problem / Incident Management

- Change Management

- Help / Service Desk

- Software Control and Distribution

- Service Level Management (SLM)

- Capacity Management

- Contingency / Security Planning

- Availability Management

- Cost Management

3. Evaluate and recommend ITIL Discipline Components

- Discipline Goals

- Discipline Activities

- Discipline Benefits

- Discipline Mission Statement

- Discipline Process Goals

- Disciplines Critical Success Factors (CSFs)

- Discipline Process Key Activities

- Discipline Key Performance Indicators (KPIs)

4. Evaluate current ITSM implementation

- Identify required Key Performance Indicators (KPIs)

- Identify required Critical Success Factors (CSFs)

- Map required KPIs to CSFs

5. Evaluate and recommend implementation of ITIL compliance internal processes and software products to meet current and future needs.

- Evaluate and recommend ITIL based best practices for internal ITSM services

- Evaluate and recommend ITIL complience software products

- Implement recommended ITIL based solutions

6. Document ITIL implementation requirements and results

- Document implemented KPIs

- Document implemented CSFs

- Document implemented ITSM software and Internal Services


For more information about ITIL and ITSM consulting services, please contact SixHat Technologies at info@sixhattech.com

 

About ITIL

IITIL is the only consistent and comprehensive documentation of best practice for IT Service Management. Used by many hundreds of organisations around the world, a whole ITIL philosophy has grown up around the guidance contained within the ITIL books and the supporting professional qualification scheme.

 

ITIL consists of a series of books giving guidance on the provision of quality IT services, and on the accommodation and environmental facilities needed to support IT. ITIL has been developed in recognition of organisations' growing dependency on IT and embodies best practices for IT Service Management.

 

The ethos behind the development of ITIL is the recognition that organisations are becoming increasingly dependent on IT in order to satisfy their corporate aims and meet their business needs. This leads to an increased requirement for high quality IT services.

 

ITIL provides the foundation for quality IT Service Management. The widespread adoption of the ITIL guidance has encouraged organisations worldwide, both commercial and non-proprietary, to develop supporting products as part of a shared 'ITIL Philosophy'.

The ITIL (IT Infrastructure Library) forms the basis of the BS 15000 standard. It consists of 7 sets: Managers Set; Service Support; Service Delivery; Software Support; Networks; Computer Operations; Environmental.

Although the UK Government originally created the ITIL, it was rapidly adopted across Europe as the standard for best practice in the provision of IT Service. Although the ITIL covers a number of areas, its main focus is on IT Service Management (ITSM).

IT Service Management (ITSM) itself is divided into two main areas, Service Support and Service Delivery. Together, these two areas consist of 10 disciplines that are responsible for the provision and management of effective IT services.

 

The ITIL Disciplines

Configuration Management

Configuration Management is the implementation of a database (Configuration Management Database – CMDB) that contains details of the organisation’s elements that are used in the provision and management of its IT services. This is more than just an ‘asset register’, as it will contain information that relates to the maintenance, movement, and problems experienced with the Configuration Items.

The CMDB also holds a much wider range of information about items that the organisation’s IT Services are dependant upon. This range of information includes:

    • Hardware
    • Software
    • Documentation
    • Personnel

Configuration Management essentially consists of 4 tasks:

1) Identification: this is the specification, identification of all IT components and their inclusion in the CMDB.

2) Control: this is the management of each Configuration Item, specifying who is authorised to ‘change’ it.

3) Status: this task is the recording of the status of all Configuration Items in the CMDB, and the maintenance of this information.

4) Verification: this task involves reviews and audits to ensure the information contained in the CMDB is accurate.

Goals : Providing information on the IT infrastructure to all other processes and IT management. Enabling control of the infrastructure by monitoring and maintaining information on all the resources needed to deliver services


—Activities
  
•Planning.
  
•Identification and naming.
  
•Control.
  
•Status accounting.
  
•Verification & audit.

—Benefits
  
•Providing accurate information on CIs and their documentation
  
•Controlling valuable CIse
  
•Facilitating adherence to legal obligations
  
•Helping with financial and expenditure planning
  
•Making software changes visible
  
•Contributing to contingency planning
  
•Supporting and improving Release management
  
•Allowing the organization to perform impact analysis and schedule changes safely and efficiently
  
•Providing problem management with data on trends

Configuration Management Overview

Mission Statement
To identify, record and report on configuration items and their relationships that underpin IT services.

Process Goal
Achieve the process mission by implementing:
• ITIL-aligned Configuration Management policies, processes and procedures
• Dedicated Configuration Management Process Owner
• Configuration Management Database (CMDB) data schema
• Proper authorization and control over CMDB data
• Periodic audits and reviews of IT services and their configuration items.
• Accurate information on IT services and their configuration items
• Verification of configuration records against the IT infrastructure and correction actions for any exceptions found.

Critical Success Factors (CSFs)
The Critical Success Factors (CSFs) are:
• Managing Configuration Item information
• Providing capability to perform risk analysis of changes and releases

Key Activities
The key activities for this process are:
• Plan for Configuration Management databases and activities
• Identify Configuration Items
• Control Configuration Item information
• Perform status accounting
• Perform verification and audit of Configuration Management databases
• Provide management information about Configuration Management quality and operations

Key Performance Indicators (KPIs)
Examples of Key Process Performance Indicators (KPIs) are shown in the list below. Each one is mapped to a Critical Success Factor (CSF) that was listed above.

Managing Configuration Item Information

• Number of Configuration Items logged and tracked
• Number of Configuration Items with attribute failures
• Number of changes to Configuration Item attributes
• Number of additional Configuration Items
• Number of deletions of Configuration Items
• Number and frequency of exceptions in configuration audits

Providing Capability To Perform Risk Analysis Of Changes and Releases

• Number of incidents caused by inaccurate configuration data
• Percentage of Services tracked with Configuration Items versus known products and services

Problem Management

Problem Management is the resolution and prevention of incidents that effect the normal running of an organisation’s IT services. This includes ensuring that faults are corrected, preventing any recurrence of these faults, and the application of preventative maintenance to reduce the likelihood of these faults occurring in the first instance.

The objective of Problem Management is to minimize the impact of problems on the organisation. Problem Management plays an important role in the detection and providing solutions to problems (work arounds & known errors) and prevents their reoccurrence.

A 'Problem' is the unknown cause of one or more incidents, often identified as a result of multiple similar incidents.

A 'Known error' is an identified root cause of a Problem.

The Problem Management process uses these inputs:

Incident Records And Details About Incidents
Known Errors
Information about CIs From The CMDB
Information From Other Processes

The outputs of the PM process:

RFCs (Request for Change)
Management Information
Work Arounds
Known Errors
Update Problem Records (solved problems records if the known error is resolved)

Problem management Overview

Mission Statement
Minimize the adverse impacts of incidents and problems on the business caused by errors in the IT infrastructure and initiate actions to prevent recurrence of incidents related to those errors.

Process Goal Achieve the process mission by implementing:
• ITIL-aligned Problem Management Policies, Processes and Procedures
• Dedicated Problem Manager
• Problem classification categories
• Problem trend reports
• Publicized Known Errors
• Problem analysis toolkit
• Root Cause Analysis skills and culture
• Actions to minimize impact of problems

Critical Success Factors (CSFs) The Critical Success Factors (CSFs) are:
• Avoiding Repeated Incidents
• Minimizing Impact Of Problems

Key Activities The key activities for this process are:
• Provide problem control
• Provide error control
• Proactively manage problems
• Conduct major problem reviews
• Provide management information about Problem Management quality and operations

Key Performance Indicators (KPIs)
Examples of Key Process Performance Indicators (KPIs) are shown in the list below. Each one is mapped to a Critical Success Factor (CSF).

Avoiding Repeated Incidents

• Number of repeat incidents
• Number of existing Problems
• Number of existing Known Errors

Minimizing Impact Of Problems

• Average time for diagnosis of Problems
• Average time for resolution of Known Errors
• Number of open Problems
• Number of open Known Errors
• Number of repeat Problems
• Number of Major Incident/Problem reviews

'Real World' definition of Incident Management: IM is the way that the Service Desk puts out the 'daily fires'.

An 'Incident' is any event which is not part of the standard operation of the service and which causes, or may cause, an interruption or a reduction of the quality of the service.

The objective of Incident Management is to restore normal operations as quickly as possible with the least possible impact on either the business or the user, at a cost-effective price.

Inputs for Incident Management mostly come from users, but can have other sources as well like management Information or Detection Systems. The outputs of the process are RFC’s (Requests for Changes), resolved and closed Incidents, management information and communication to the customer.

Activities of the Incident Management process:

Incident detection and recording
Classification and initial support
Investigation and diagnosis
Resolution and recovery
Incident closure
Incident ownership, monitoring, tracking and communication

The BIG 3 responsibilities therefore are:-

Incident Control
Problem Control (This is a activity/responsibilityof Problem Management)
Error Control (This is an activity/responsibility of Problem not incident)

These 3 elements provides a baseline for management review.

Incident Management Quick Overview

Mission Statement
Restore normal state IT service operations as quickly as possible to minimize the adverse impact on business operations.

Process Goal Achieve the process mission by implementing:
• ITIL-aligned Incident Management Policies, Processes and Procedures
• Incident escalation standards
• Dedicated Incident Management Process Owner
• Incident classification categories
• Incident reports
• Incident communications and education for IT staff

Critical Success Factors (CSFs) The Critical Success Factors (CSFs) are:
• Maintaining IT Service Quality
• Maintaining Customer Satisfaction
• Resolving Incidents Within Established Service Times

Key Activities The key activities for this process are:
• Detect and record incidents
• Classify incidents
• Provide initial incident support
• Prioritize incidents based on impact and urgency
• Investigate and diagnose incidents
• Resolve incidents and recover service per agreed service levels
• Close incidents
• Maintain ownership, monitoring, tracking and communications about incidents
• Provide management information about Incident Management quality and operations

Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) Examples of Key Process Performance Indicators (KPIs) are shown in the list below. Each one is mapped to a Critical Success Factor (CSF).

Maintaining IT Service Quality

• Number of Severity 1 incidents (total and by category)
• Number of Severity 2 incidents (total and by category)
• Number of other incidents (total and by category)
• Number of incidents incorrectly categorized
• Number of incidents incorrectly escalated
• Number of incidents bypassing Service Desk
• Number of incidents not closed/resolved with workarounds
• Number of incidents resolved before customers notice
• Number of incidents reopened

Maintaining Customer Satisfaction

• Number of User/Customer surveys sent
• Number of User/Customer surveys responded to
• Average User/Customer survey score (total and by question category)
• Average queue time waiting for Incident response

Resolving Incidents Within Established Service Times

• Number of incidents logged
• Number of incidents resolved by Service Desk
• Number of incidents escalated by Service Desk
• Average time to restore service from point of first call
• Average time to restore Severity 1 incidents
• Average time to restore Severity 2 incidents

The Difference between Incident Management and Problem Management

Incidents and Service Requests are formally managed through a staged process to conclusion. This process is referred to as the "Incident Management Lifecycle". The objective of the Incident Management Lifecycle is to restore the service as quickly as possible to meet Service Level Agreements. The process is primarily aimed at the user level.

Problem Management deals with resolving the underlying cause of one or more Incidents. The focus of Problem Management is to resolve the root cause of errors and to find permanent solutions. Although every effort will be made to resolve the problem as quickly as possible this process is focused on the resolution of the problem rather than the speed of the resolution. This process deals at the enterprise level.

Change Management

Change Management is the practice of ensuring that all changes to Configuration Items are carried out in a planned and authorised manner.

This includes ensuring that there is a business reason behind each change, identifying the specific Configuration Items and IT Services affected by the change, planning the change, testing the change, and having a back-out plan should the change result in an unexpected state of the Configuration Item.

—Goal : Ensure that standardized methods and procedures are used for efficient and prompt handling of all changes, in order to minimize the impact of Change-related incidents upon service quality, and consequently to improve the the day-to-day operations of the organization

—Input : RFCs, CMDB, Forward Schedule of Changes(FSC))
—Activities
   
•Filtering changes
   
•Managing changes and the change process
   
•Chairing the CAB and CAB/EC
   
•Reviewing and closing RFCs
   
•Management reports
—Benefits
   
•Better alignment of IT service to business requirements
   
•Increased visibility and communication on changes to both business and service support staff
   
•Improved risk assessment
   
•Reduced adverse impact of changes on the quality of services and on SLAs
   
•Improved problem and availability management through the use of valuable management information relating to changes
   
•Fewer changes to be backed-out

Change Management Overview

Mission Statement
Coordinate and control all changes to IT services to minimize adverse impacts of those changes to business operations and the users of IT services.

Process Goal
Achieve the process mission by implementing:
• ITIL-aligned Change Management Policies, Processes and Procedures
• Standardized methods and techniques for efficient handling of changes
• Dedicated Change Manager
• Change Advisory Board
• Forward Schedule of Changes (FSC)
• Published Service Availability (PSA) reports
• Proper levels of pre and post Change communications with customers and users

Critical Success Factors (CSFs) The Critical Success Factors (CSFs) are:
• Controlling Changes
• Making Quick And Accurate Changes Based On Business Priorities
• Protecting Services When Making Changes

Key Activities The key activities for this process are:
• Accept Changes
• Prioritize and classify changes
• Coordinate change impact assessment
• Coordinate approval of changes
• Coordinate scheduling of changes
• Coordinate implementation of changes
• Conduct post implementation reviews
• Provide management information about Change Management quality and operations

Key Performance Indicators (KPIs)
Examples of Key Process Performance Indicators (KPIs) are shown in the list below. Each one is mapped to a Critical Success Factor (CSF).

Controlling Changes

• Number of RFCs processed
• Number of RFCs rejected
• Number of unauthorized changes detected
• Number of RFCs implemented on schedule
• Number of RFCs requiring reschedules

Making Quick and Accurate Changes Based On Business Priorities

• Number of RFCs marked as URGENT
• Number of RFCs not tested prior to implementation
• Number of RFCs that failed
• Number of RFCs without business case
• Number of RFCs bypassing CAB or CAB/EC

Protecting Services When making Changes

• Number of SEV1 incidents caused by RFC implementation
• Number of SEV2 incidents caused by RFC implementation
• Number of other incidents caused by RFC implementation
• Number of RFCs without a backup strategy

Help/Service Desk

The Help Desk plays an important part in the provision of IT Services. It is very often the first contact the business users have in their use of IT Services when something does not work as expected.

The two main focuses of the Help Desk are Incident Control and Communication.

There are different types of Help Desk, the selection of which is dependant upon what the business requires. Some Help Desks provide a simple call logging function, and escalate calls to more experienced and trained staff. Others provide a high degree of business and technical knowledge with the ability to solve most incidents at the time that the business user reports them.

Though not a process, the Service Desk is an important function within the service support set. It is the first, and ideally single point of contact for users (SPOC).

The two main focuses of the Service Desk are: Incident Control and Communication.

The Service Desk handles all incoming calls and only escalates them to the second or third tier support when necessary.

Ideally, the Service Desk will have access to a Knowledge Base, which will contain a list of known solutions for common incidents. This way queries or incidents can be solved by the Service Desk staff without taking time from skilled IT technicians.

For the customer the advantage is that they don’t have to ring around searching for the right person to solve their problem and for IT personnel it means that they only have to deal with issues that are related to their skills or area of responsibility.

The Service Desk is responsible for keeping the customer informed on the status of their request.

A Service Catalogue should be available which lists all of the services that IT provides to the business. This catalogue should list the services from a users perspective. A suggestion from the SLM2000 Service Catalogue template for information to be included in a Service Catalogue is listed below. Actual components required in a Service Catalogue will differ depending on the business situation however.


IT Service Management Service Catalogue
1 Executive Overview
2 Scope
3 Service Summary Sheet
4 Service A
4.1 Description
4.2 Customers
4.3 Options
4.4 Price List
4.5 Dependencies & Contributors
4.6 Functional Specification
4.7 Technical Specification
4.8 Support Activities
4.9 Customizations or Variants
4.10 Existing SLAs
4.11 Restrictions
5 Appendices
6 Terminology


Service Desk Function Overview

Mission Statement
Provide a strategic central point of contact for customers and support the Incident Management process by providing an operational single point of contact to manage incidents to resolution.

Function Goal
Achieve the function mission by implementing:
• ITIL-aligned Service Desk function
• Dedicated Service Desk Function Owner
• Centralized function for incident and request handling
• Ongoing monitoring and management of customer satisfaction
• Strong levels of incident communications and ownership
• Right level of support and customer care skills among Service Desk staff and management

Critical Success Factors (CSFs)
The Critical Success Factors (CSFs) are:
• Ensure long term Customer retention and satisfaction
• Assist in the identification of business opportunities.
• Reduce support costs by the efficient use of resource and technology

Key Activities
The key activities for this function are:
• Provide advice and guidance to customers
• Communicate and promote IT services
• Manage and control service communications to customers, suppliers and the business
• Coordinate Incident Management activities
• Manage people, processes and technologies that form the contact infrastructure
• Provide management information about Service Desk quality and operations

Key Performance Indicators (KPIs)
Examples of Key Process Performance Indicators (KPIs) are shown in the list below. Each one is mapped to a Critical Success Factor (CSF).

Ensure Long Term Customer Retention and Satisfaction

• Percent Of Customers Given Satisfaction Surveys
• Customer Satisfaction Rating Of Service Desk
• Percent Of Caller Hold Times Within Service Targets
• Percent Of Calls Responded To Within Service Targets
• Number Of Incident Records Not Yet Closed
• Number Of Calls Abandoned

Assist In The Identification Of Business Opportunities

• Number Of Calls Referred To Sales Organization
• Dollar Value Of Referred Calls To Sales Organization

Reduce Support Costs By Efficient Use Of Resources and Technologies

• Percent Of Calls Resolved At The Service Desk Without Escalation
• Staff Turnover Rate
• Overall Cost Per Call

Software Control and Distribution

This discipline of ITIL is the management of all software Configuration Items within the organisation. It covers the management of software development, installation and support of an organisation’s software products.

Software is often not regarded as a tangible asset because of its clearly intangible nature, which can result in it not being effectively controlled. There can be several versions of the same software within the organisation for example, and there can also be unlicensed and illegal copies of externally provided software.

The practice of effective Software Control & Distribution involves the creation of a Definitive Software Library (DSL), into which the master copies of all software is stored and from here its control and release is managed. The DSL consists of a physical store and a logical store. The physical store is where the master copies of all software media are stored. This tends to be software that has been provided from an external source. The logical store is the index of all software and releases, versions, etc. highlighting where the physical media can be located. The logical store may also be used for the storage of software developed within the organisation.

SC&D procedures include the management of the software Configuration Items and their distribution and implementation into a production environment. This will involve the definition of a release programme suitable for the organisation, the definition of how version control will be implemented, and the procedures surrounding how software will be built, released and audited.

Service Level Management (SLM)

Service Level Management (SLM) is a primary management of IT services, ensuring that agreed services are delivered when and where they are supposed to be delivered. The Service Level Manager is dependent upon all the other areas of Service Delivery providing the necessary support that ensures the agreed services are provided in an efficient, secure, and cost effective manner.

There are a number of business processes that form part of Service Level Management. These are:

  • Reviewing existing services
  • Negotiating with the Customers
  • Implementation of Service Improvement policy and processes
  • Establishing priorities
  • Planning for service growth
  • Reviewing the underpinning contacts of 3rd party service providers
  • Producing and monitoring the Service Level Agreement (SLA)
  • Involvement in the Accounting process to cost services and recover these costs

A comprehensive service level agreement is an essential requirement for the provision or receipt of any important service. It quite simply defines the parameters for the delivery of that service, for the benefit of both parties.

The quality of the agreement is therefore a matter of substantial importance. It must be complete, comprehensive and accurate in its coverage. Importantly, both parties must UNDERSTAND the contents and their obligations described within.

Service Level Management is the process that forms the link between the IT organization and customers.

Implementing Service Level Management can only be completely successful when the other ITIL processes are implemented as well.

The main aim of SLM is to ensure the quality of the IT services provided, at a cost acceptable to the business/customer.

The goal for SLM is to maintain and improve on service quality through a constant cycle of agreeing, monitoring, reporting and improving the current levels of service. It is focused on the business and maintaining the alignment between the business and IT.

Service Level Management Overview

Mission Statement
Plan, coordinate, negotiate, report and manage the quality of IT services at acceptable cost.

Process Goal
Achieve the process mission by implementing:
• ITIL-aligned Service Level Management policies, processes and procedures
• Business-aligned IT services through a constant cycle of agreeing, monitoring and reporting
• Dedicated Service Level Management Process Owner
• Holistic management over IT services versus independent technical silos
• IT Service Catalog
• Service Level Agreements for customers of IT services
• Operational Level Agreements and Underpinning Contracts with IT suppliers
• Reports on the quality of IT services on a regular basis
• Proactive actions to seek service improvements where needed
• Proactive actions to eradicate unacceptable levels of service.

Critical Success Factors (CSFs)
The Critical Success Factors (CSFs) are:
• Meeting Customer Needs And Priorities
• Adherence To Service Levels
• Providing Services Cost Effectively
• Controlling Service Delivery
• Maintaining Recognized Industry Acceptance For IT Quality
• Maintaining An IT Service Culture

Key Activities
The key activities for this process are:
• Identify IT services and service requirements
• Define, build and manage the IT Service Catalog
• Define, build and negotiate Service Level Agreements (SLAs)
• Define, build and negotiate Operational Level Agreements (OLAs)
• Identify Underpinning Contract service requirements (UCs)
• Monitor and manage SLAs, OLAs and UCs
• Initiate service improvement actions
• Provide management information about Service Level Management quality and operations
Continued on next page


Service Level Management, Continued

Key Performance Indicators (KPIs)
Examples of Key Process Performance Indicators (KPIs) are shown in the list below. Each one is mapped to a Critical Success Factor (CSF).

Meeting Customer Needs and Priorities

• Customer satisfaction score/rating
• Average time to implement SLA requests
• Number of SLAs in renegotiation
• Number of SLAs requiring changes (targets not attainable, etc.)
• Number of SLA issues logged

Adherence To Service Levels

• Number of SLA targets missed
• Number of SLA targets threatened

Providing Services Cost Effectively

• Current cost per customer for delivery of services
• Percentage improvement in delivery cost per customer

Controlling Service Delivery

• Number of OLA issues logged
• Number of Underpinning Contract issues logged

Maintaining Recognized Industry Acceptance For IT Quality

• Number of ITs articles/white papers published
• Percentage IT Operations staff in industry (i.e; itSMF) programs
• Percentage progress towards industry certification (i.e; ISO9000)
• Dollars spent on external communications activities

Maintaining an IT Service Culture

• Percentage of IT Operations staff ITIL-aware
• Number of IT Operations staff ITIL certified
• Number of IT Operations staff with advanced ITIL certification
• Number Of Agreed SLAs Not Supported By OLAs/UCs

Capacity Management

Capacity Management is the discipline that ensures that IT infrastructure is provided at the right time, in the correct volume at the right price - helping to ensure that IT is used in the most efficient manner.

This involves input from many areas of the business to identify what services are (or will be) required, what IT infrastructure is required to support these services, what level of Contingency will be needed, and what the cost of this infrastructure will be.

These are inputs into the following Capacity Management processes:

  • Performance monitoring
  • Workload monitoring
  • Resource forecasting
  • Demand forecasting
  • Application sizing
  • Modelling

From these processes come the results of capacity management, these being the capacity plan itself, forecasts, tuning data and Service Level Management guidelines.


Capacity management is made up of three subprocesses: